Government

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with the capital located in London, England. The constitutional monarchy consists of an executive, legislative, and judicial branch. The United Kingdom consists of 47 counties, 7 metropolitan counties, 26 districts, 9 regions, and 3 island areas.

The United Kingdom does not have a written constitution. The equivalent body of law is based on statute, common law, and "traditional rights". Changes may come about formally through new acts of parliament, informally through the acceptance of new practices and usage, or by judicial precedents. Although parliament has the theoretical power to make or repeal any law, in actual practice tradition restrains arbitrary actions.

Executive power is wielded by the Prime Minister (Tony Blair) who is the leader of the majority party in Parliament, and the cabinet, which is appointed by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister also appoints about 25 ministers outside the cabinet, as well as 50 junior ministers. The chief of state is Queen Elizabeth II, with the Heir Apparent being Prince Charles.

The legislative branch is a bicameral Parliament that consists of House of Lords and House of Commons. Parliament represents the entire country and can legislate for the whole or for any constituent part or combination of parts. The maximum parliamentary term is 5 years, but the Prime Minister may ask the monarch to dissolve parliament and call a general election at any time. The focus of the legislative power is the 650-member House of Commons, which has sole jurisdiction over finance. The House of Lords, although shorn of most of its powers, can still review, amend, or delay temporarily any bills except those relating to the budget. Only a few of the 1,200 members of the House of Lords attend its sessions regularly. The House of Lords has more time than the House of Commons to pursue one of its more important functions—debating public issues.

The Judicial branch is the House of Lords, with several Lords of Appeal in Ordinary being appointed by the monarch for life. The judiciary is independent of the legislative and executive branches but cannot review the constitutionality of legislation.

The government of the United Kingdom is one of the most stable of the world, it is as stable as that of the United States. This desk sees no potential shifts in the United Kingdom’s government that would preclude us from investing in and doing business in any of its major metropolitan areas.

Government

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with the capital located in London, England. Scotland, although ruled by the governing body of the United Kingdom, elects it’s own parliament. In 1999 a new Scottish parliament was elected. This is the first time for Scotland to have its own parliament in over 300 years. The Scottish government is led by a first minister (Donald Dewar). A secretary of state of Scotland remains part of the UK cabinet, and is supported by the Scotland Office, based in Glasgow, with offices in Edinburgh and London.

Scotland has its own legal system, judiciary and an education system which, at all levels, differs from that found in England and Whales. Edinburgh, the home of the Scottish parliament, is responsible for most aspects of Scottish life. The national parliament in London retains responsibility for areas such as defense, foreign affairs and taxation. Scotland also has its own banking system with Edinburgh being the second financial center of the UK and one of the major financial centers of the world.

Scotland falls under the United Kingdom’s rule and therefore also offers a very stable environment in which to invest in the import and export of value added products.

Government

Ireland is a republican country, with its national capital located in Dublin. They gained independence on 6 Dec 1921 from the U.K.. Ireland is a parliamentary democracy. The National Parliament (Oireachtas) consists of the President (Mary McAleese), who is elected for a 7-year term, and two Houses: Dáil Éireann (House of Representatives) and Seanad Éireann (the Senate). The functions and powers of the two houses are derived from the Constitution of Ireland enacted by the people on 1st July, 1937. The Houses of the Oireachtas are situated at Leinster House. The method of election to each House is different. The 166 Members of Dáil Éireann are directly elected by the people. The 60 Members of Seanad Éireann are either nominated or elected as follows, 11 nominated by the Taoisigh (prime minister, Patrick Ahern), 43 elected from five panels of candidates (Culture and Education, Agriculture, Labour, Industry and Commerce, Public Administration), and three each elected by the National University of Ireland and the University of Dublin (Trinity College). The Houses have complementary powers in certain areas. Examples include the removal from office of the President, the declaration and termination of a state of emergency, and the making of law and annulment of Statutory Instruments (i.e. delegated legislative power to Ministers). However, Seanad Éireann does have prior or exclusive powers in two areas: abbreviating the time within which the President may sign a Bill Into law (called an "earlier signature motion") and Petitioning the President to decline to sign a Bill until the people have decided the matter by referendum (such a petition requires the support of a majority of the Seanad and not less than one third of the Dáil). The ultimate court of appeal is the Supreme Court, consisting of the chief justice and five other justices. The Supreme Court also can decide upon the constitutionality of legislative acts if the president asks for an opinion.

The President may, after consultation with the Council of State, communicate with the Houses of the Oireachtas by message or address on any matter of national or public importance. The Houses have separate constitutional identities.

Local government is by elected county councils -- and in the cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick, and Waterford -- by County Borough Corporation. In practice, however, the authority remains with the central government.

The government of the Republic of Ireland is very stable. This desk sees no potential shifts in the organization of the Irish government and strongly recommends that Ireland be considered as a point for potential import and export of value added products.

Government

The government of Denmark is considered a constitutional monarchy. This is misleading because it is a very democratic system of government that is in place currently. The executive branch of the government is the King or Queen and they are known as the chief of state. The role of the chief of state is mostly that of a figurehead. They do however have the duty of selecting the cabinet. The Prime Minister is another division of the executive branch and he has a more active role in the government. He is considered the head of government and is the spokesperson for the legislative branch. The legislative branch is a unicameral parliament and is called the Folketing. There are 179 members that make up the Folketing and they are elected every four-years. The voting age is considered adult but I have yet to see a particular age limit. The final branch of government is the judicial. It is made up of 15 Supreme Court judges that are appointed by the Folketing. The capital of Denmark is located in Copenhagen.

Political parties: Social Democratic, Venstre (Liberal), Konservative, Socialist People's, Progress, Radikale, Unity List, Center Democratic, Danish People's.

Principle Government Officials

The monarch is Queen Margarethe ll.

The current Prime Minister is Paul Nyrup Rasmussen as of 25 June 1993.

The current condition of the government is very stable there is a large protective structure in place that takes care of the citizens very well and is popular currently. The laws and the way the government is aligned makes changes however they are very slow and take a long time. The government is very conservative and looks like it will be stable for a long time.

In the future there may be changes due to the joining of the European Union, which could make them slightly more liberal. The near future however, should be fairly calm and no major changes are foreseen.

Government

France is considered a Republic with three branches (executive, legislative, and judicial) with the President (chief of state) Jacques Chirac, and Prime Minister (head of government) Lionel Jospin. The capital of France is located in Paris. President Jacques Chirac assumed office May 17, 1995, after a campaign focused on the need to combat France's stubbornly high unemployment rate.

The Executive branch consists of the President, Prime Minister, and Cabinet. The cabinet is a Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the suggestion of the Prime Minister.

The Legislative branch bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (321 seats—296 for metropolitan France, 13 for overseas departments and territories, and 12 for French nationals abroad; members are indirectly elected by an electoral college to serve nine-year terms; elected by thirds every three years) and the National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (577 seats; members are elected by popular vote under a single-member majoritarian system to serve five-year terms)

The Judicial branch Supreme Court of Appeals or Cour de Cassation, judges are appointed by the president from nominations of the High Council of the Judiciary; Constitutional Council or Conseil Constitutionnel, three members appointed by the president, three members appointed by the president of the National Assembly, and three appointed by the president of the Senate; Council of State or Conseil d'Etat

Political parties: Rally for the Republic (Gaullists/conservatives); Union for French Democracy (a center-right conglomerate of 5 parties: Democratic Force, Republican Party, and Radical Party are the three major components.) Socialist Party; Communist Party; National Front; Greens; Ecology Generation; various minor parties.

During his first 2 years in office, President Chirac's Prime Minister was Alain Juppe, who served contemporaneously as leader of Chirac's neo-Gaullist Rally for the Republic (RPR) Party. Chirac and Juppe benefited from a very large, if rather unruly, majority in the National Assembly (470 out of 577 seats). Mindful that the government might have to take politically costly decisions in advance of the legislative elections planned for spring 1998 in order to ensure France met the Maastricht criteria for the single European currency, Chirac decided in April 1997 to call early elections. The Left, however, led by Socialist Party leader Lionel Jospin, whom Chirac defeated in the 1995 presidential race, unexpectedly won a solid National Assembly majority (319 seats, with 289 required for an absolute majority) in the two rounds of balloting, which took place May 25 and June 1,1997. President Chirac named Jospin prime minister on June 2, and Jospin went on to form a government composed primarily of Socialist ministers, along with some ministers from allied parties of the Left, such as the Communist and the Greens. Jospin stated his support for continued European integration and his intention to keep France on the path of toward Economic and Monetary Union, albeit with greater attention to social concerns.

The tradition in periods of "cohabitation" (president of one party, Prime Minister of another) is for the president to exercise the primary role in foreign and security policy, with the dominant role in domestic policy falling to the Prime Minister and his government. Jospin stated, however, that he would not a priori leave any domain exclusively to the president.

Chirac and Jospin have worked together, for the most part, in the foreign affairs field with representatives of the presidency and the government pursuing a single, agreed French policy. The current "cohabitation" arrangement is the longest lasting in the history of the Fifth Republic.

France has proved to have a strong government and will not see any significant shifts over the next five years.

Government

Germany has a federal republic government with three branches - executive, legislative, and judicial. Berlin is the capital, but Bonn retains many administrative functions and several ministries even though parliament moved in 1999. Germany is divided into 16 states: Baden-Wuerttemberg, Bayern, Berlin, Brandenburg, Bremen, Hamburg, Hessen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Niedersachsen, Nordrhein-Westfalen Rheinland-Pfalz, Saarland, Sachsen, Sachsen-Anhalt, Schleswig-Hostein, and Thueringen.

There is a dual executive branch. The chief of state is President Adolf Ogi (elected 2000) and the head of government is Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder (since 27 January 1998). The cabinet is appointed by the president upon the proposal of the chancellor and the chancellor functions as the Prime Minister of the cabinet. The president is elected every five years by a Federal Convention (includes all of the Federal Assembly and an equal number of delegates elected by the Land Parliaments called the Federal Council). The chancellor is elected by an absolute majority of the Federal Assembly for a four-year term.

The legislative branch has a bicameral chamber, which is made up of the Federal Assembly (Bundestag) which usually has 656 seats filled b election by popular vote in a system that combines direct and proportional representation. A party must win 5% of the national vote or three direct mandates to gain representation. These members serve four-year terms. The Federal Council (Bundesrat) has 69 votes. The state governments are directly represented by votes; each has three to six votes depending on population and are required to vote as a block. The next election for the Federal Assembly will be in the fall of 2002. Composition of the Bundesrat is determined by the composition of the state-level governments and has the potential to change any time one of the 16 states holds an election.

Germany has been undergoing many changes; the most obvious is the unification of East and West Germany on 3 October 1990. They formally relinquished rights 15 March 1991. The Basic Law constitution became the constitution of the united Germany on 3 October 1990. Also very recently, there has been considerable publicity surrounding the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and former Chancellor Kohl. Kohl has admitted to accepting many illegal donations and using many slush funds during his time as Chancellor. In 1998, the composition of the Federal Council (votes by party) was CDU-led states 24 and Social Democratic Party (SPD)-led states 45. Due to the bad publicity for the CDU, we expect its popularity to decrease, at least in the immediate future. The public has been very surprised and upset at the discovery of Kohl’s dishonesty even though he was deemed a hero for his role in the unification of Germany. Many of their votes will go to the SPD and the Christian Social Union (CSU) with a few votes also for the Free Democratic Party (FDP). With all of the changes in leadership and adjustments taking place from the unification of Germany, it is not the most stable government.

Government

The government of Italy is similar to that of the United States. They have been, recognized as a republic since 2 June 1946, and adopted their constitution 1 January 1948. Italy has three main branches of government representation. The elected leader is the chief of state (executive) which also has a cabinet called the Counselor of Ministries. The legislative branch consists of a bicameral Parliament that has a 630 member Chamber of Deputies and 325 member Senate. The final branch of government is the judicial section, which is an independent constitutional court with lower magistracy. The capital of italy is located in Rome.

Political parties include: Forza Italia, Northern League, National Alliance, Democratic Party of the Left, Italian People's Party, Christian Democratic Center, Socialist, La Rete, Communist Renewal, Social Democratic, Republican, Liberal, Greens, Italian Renewal.

Principal Government Officials

Chief of State is Carlo Azeglio Ciampi who was elected 18 May 1999. The Prime Minister is Massimo D’Alema and he was elected 21 October 1998.

The government has undergone significant changes over the past 10 years in particular. The voters have become dissatisfied with the government and have voted in a number of new officials. The reason for the change in voter sentiment was the fact there was a large government debt, political corruption, and a large influence of organized crime. The last major election year was 1994 and 452 of the 630 Chamber of Deputies were voted out of office. Likewise there were 213 of the 315, member senate that were first time elects. The government is now considered to be a majority of left-center politicians. This can change rapidly however due to the loss of voter confidence their willingness to remove officials who they aren’t satisfied with.

The current government is not very stable but in the future this is likely to be corrected. I think that since Italy joined the European Union the likelihood of them making changes and cleaning up the government should occur. This is because the EU has a form of representation that oversees all the countries associated with the EU. This group of lawmakers doesn’t have a lot of power however they do have influence in the independent states that make up the EU. This should provide a backbone for the Italian political situation and help make better decisions concerning the country and reinstate voter confidence.

Government

Type: Constitutional monarchy (Juan Carlos I proclaimed King Nov. 22, 1975). The Constitution was written in 1978. Branches: Executive -- President of government nominated by monarch, subject to approval by democratically elected Congress of Deputies. Legislative -- bicameral Cortes: a 350-seat Congress of Deputies (elected by the d'Hondt system of proportional representation) and a Senate that accounts for 208 senators. Judicial -- Constitutional Tribunal has jurisdiction over constitutional issues. Supreme Tribunal heads system comprising territorial, provincial, regional, and municipal courts.

Political parties: Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE), Popular Party (PP), and the United Left (IU) coalition. Key regional parties are the Convergence and Union (CIU) in Catalonia and the Basque National Party (PNV) in the Basque country. The mood of the nation is mostly central but with the pending election on March 12, there is potential for a move to a leftist government.

Principle Government officials

Chief of State, Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces -- King Juan Carlos I
President of the Government (Prime Minister) -- Jose Maria Aznar

The 1978 constitution established Spain as a parliamentary monarchy, with the Prime Minister responsible to the bicameral Cortes elected every four years. The elections of March 1979 gave Suarez's party a large plurality, but the coalition of parties backing Suarez soon began to disintegrate. In January 1981, Suarez resigned, and the King nominated Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo to replace him. On February 23, while the Congress of Deputies was voting on the Calvo Sotelo nomination, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Congress and tried to impose a military-backed government. However, the great majority of the military forces remained loyal to King Juan Carlos, who used his personal authority to put down the coup. The bloodless coup attempt was over in 18 hours. On February 25, the Congress of Deputies reconvened to approve Calvo Sotelo's nomination as Prime Minister.

In March 1996, elections were held and Jose Maria Aznar’s Partido Popular (PP) won a plurality of votes. Since PP did not have an absolute majority, it took two months to form a government with the support of the Catalan parties partnership (CIU), the Basque national party, PNV, and the Canary Islands Coalition. Once in power, Aznar moved to decentralize certain powers to the regions. Gained the support of the parliament for Spain's entry into NATO's integrated military structure. He continued the privatization of a number of government-held industries, persuaded the European Union to toughen its stance toward Cuba, and took measures enabling Spain to meet the Maastricht requirements to qualify as one of the first countries in the European Monetary Union. During the PP's first year, labor and management conducted successful negotiations to reform Spain's cumbersome labor laws.

As for my predictions of where the country of Spain is headed. I think that the economy will continue to be hurt by such huge unemployment rates that they are experiencing right now. If these rates could be improved it will give them a much better economy that can survive and thrive in the EU, and in the world economy. All of this is obviously speculative, and there is a lot that will be determined by the pending elections of next month.

Government

Switzerland has a federal republic government with three branches - executive, legislative, and judicial - similar to Germany. The capital is Bern and the country is divided into 26 cantons: Aargau, Ausser-Rhoden, Basel-Landschaft, Basel-Stadt, Bern, Fribourg, Geneve, Glarus, Graubunden, Inner-Rhoden, Jura, Luzern, Neuchatel, Nidwalden, Obwalden, Sankt Gallen, Schaffhausen, Schwyz, Solothurn, Thurgau, Ticino, Uri, Valais, Vaud, Zug, and Zurich. Suffrage begins at age 18.

The executive branch has a president, Adolf Ogi who was elected in 2000 and is the chief of state and head of government. The Federal Assembly elects the cabinet from its own members for a four-year term. The Federal Assembly from among the members of the Federal Council elects the president and vice president for one-year terms that run concurrently. The Federal Council is a colloquium of 7 members.

The legislative branch is a bicameral Federal Assembly consisting of the Council of States (Standerat) with 46 seats serving four-year terms and the National Council (Nationalrat) with 200 seats elected by popular vote on a basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms.

The judicial branch has a Federal Supreme Court whose judges are elected for six-year terms by the Federal Assembly.

Switzerland declared its independence 1 August 1291 and its constitution was in place 29 May 1874. The legal system consists of a civil law system influenced by customary law, a judicial review of legislative acts, and accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations. The Radical Fee Democratic Party and Social Democratic Party hold the most seats in the Council of States and the National Council, respectively. Other leading parties include the Christian Democratic People’s Party and the Swiss People’s Party. Switzerland’s long time freedom and tradition of neutrality give us some confidence that their government is stable. It is likely that their neutral position will be challenged by the use of the Euro.

Government

The government in Austria is called a Parliamentary Democracy. The president figure in Austria is called the Federal President and acts as the head of state. The Federal President is elected directly by the people every six years. The current Federal President is Thomas Klestil of the Austrians Peoples Party, elected in 1998 for his second term. Among the presidential duties are the signing of treaties, the swearing in of provincial governors and the verification of laws passed by Parliament. The President is also the commander-in-chief of the Austrian Armed Forces. The Federal president also is in charge of appointing the Federal Chancellor, usually the leader of the strongest party, and, at the latter’s suggestion, the members of government. No one can become a member of government unless he has the approval of the President.

The Austrian Parliament is made up of two houses, the Nationalrat (Lower house) and the Bunderesrat (Upper house). The Nationalrat is similar to our house of representatives in function. The 183 members are elected directly by the people for 4 year terms. The Bundesrat is similar to our senate in function. The 64 members are delegated by Austria’s 9 providential legislatures for terms of 4 to 6 years.

The current political setup in Austria is a coalition government. Elections for the Nationalrat were held last October. The left-wing Social Democrats took 65 of the 183 seats, too few to govern alone. The centralist Peoples Party took 52 seats and they tried to set up a coalition with the Social Democrats but talks broke down. The far-right Freedom Party also got 52 seats and they were successful in setting up a coalition government with the Peoples party. The result was a right-wing coalition between the Freedom party and the Peoples party. The new Federal Chancellor will be Wolfgang Schuessel head of the Peoples party. The Vice Chancellor will be Susanne Riess-Passer an official from the Freedom party. Jorg Haider from the Freedom party will remain governor of the Carinthia providence and not take a government post. But critics fear that through his strong influence of the party, he will be able to influence national policy and manipulate Mr. Schuessel, whose grip on his own Peoples party is not strong. The Federal President Thomas Klestil had the power to reject the coalition and even to call new elections, although such a move would have been unprecedented in Austria’s post-World War 2 history.

The changes in the Austrian government since 1970 are as follows. From 1970 to 1983 the left-wing Social democrats were the majority in power. In 1983 it lost this majority and formed a coalition with the right-wing Freedom party. Following a change in the Freedom party’s leadership the Social democrats decided not to continue with the coalition in 1986. The Nationalrat election of that year resulted in the Green party gaining parliamentary seats. In 1987 the Social democrats and the Peoples party formed a coalition government and have been the majority since then until this last election. Wolfgang Schussel of the Peoples party the new Chancellor has been the Vice Chancellor since 1995.

As far as an outlook for the next 5 years I see this new coalition government doing just fine and the next election, if things went well you could see similar results as this past election. People are worried about this Jorg Haider but I feel that he does not want a seat in the federal government but he is content with offering constructive criticism to those In power. I do not feel that anyone has to worry about Jorg Haider or someone else from his far right-wing camp, gaining too much power and running away with it. There are too many other checks on them, the other side of the coalition government for one. Jorg Haider may shake things up a bit, possibly a good thing but I do not see any problems coming up. As far as the E.U. and their opposition to all of this I am not too worried. They may have sounded stern at first but in the past weeks relations have really eased a lot and in the future I see things going back to normal as soon as they see nothing is going to change too drastically in Austria. Even if Austria does have some problems with the E.U. that has nothing to do with us doing business with them.

Government

The President of the Republic is elected by the National Assembly every 5 years and has a largely ceremonial role but his powers also include appointing the prime minister. The prime minister selects cabinet ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them. Each cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary committees in consultative open hearings and must be formally approved by the president. The unicameral, 386-member National Assembly is the highest organ of state authority and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. A party must win at least 5% of the national vote to form a parliamentary faction. National parliamentary elections are held every 4 years (the last in May 1998). A 15-member Constitutional Court has power to challenge legislation on grounds of unconstitutionality.

The Hungarian government has had many changes in the past 20 years and was quite a mess to figure out. In 1980 Hungary was still a Still a communist state headed under the watch of Janos Kadar since the early 60’s. The 60’s and 70’s were relatively domestically quiet and by the early 80’s the country had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which encouraged more trade with the West. But still the communist way of doing things lead to mounting foreign debt incurred to shore up unprofitable industries.

Hungary’s transition to a Western style parliamentary democracy was the first and the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc, inspired be a nationalism that had lone had encouraged Hungarians to control their own destiny. By 1987, activists within the party and bureaucracy were pressing for change. In 1988 Kadar was replaced as the General Secretary of the communist party, and reform communist leader Imre Pozsgay took over. That same year the parliament adopted a democracy package which included trade union pluralism, freedom of association, and the press; a new electoral law; and a radical revision of the constitution, among others. They also endorsed the principle of a multi party political system. That year the Soviet union also withdrew its involvement. In 1990 the country had its first free election and the Christian Democracy party came to power establishing the foundation of a free market economy. Then in 1994 the Socialists came back to power.

The current majority political party in power is a coalition government between the Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party (central-right) and the Smallholder’s Party (far-right). The right side people won back the majority in the 1998 elections from the Hungarian Socialist Party (center-left) due to problems involving dissatisfaction with the pace of economic recovery, rising crime, and cases of government corruption. All of these factors contributed to the Hungarian people electing the Current government. The current President of Hungary is Arpad Goncz. The Prime Minister is Viktor Orban of the Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party which is center-right. He promised to stimulate faster economic growth, curb inflation, and lower taxes. Although the Orban administration also pledged continuity in foreign policy, and has continued to pursue Euro-Atlantic integration as its first priority, it has been more a more vocal advocate of minority rights for ethnic Hungarians abroad than the previous government.

I would say that we should use caution in getting too involved in Hungary. Where they have only had their current government in place for ten years I feel that they are still trying to figure out what to do with it. Even though the current government can be said to be center-right if things don’t go well the people could elect the socialist parties again as they did in 1994. I am not too comfortable with the stability of the government since I am not too confident on how solid the democratic system has been set up so far, it could be really easy for them to go back to a socialist government and nationalize business again. I would not hesitate doing business in the short term in Hungary but I would not make any long term investments yet.

Government

Romania’s 1991 constitution proclaims Romania to be a democracy and market economy. The constitution directs the state to implement free trade. It also provides for a president, a Parliament, a Constitutional Court, and a separate system of lower courts that includes a Supreme Court.

The two-chamber Parliament, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate, is the law making authority. Deputies and senators are elected for four-year terms.

The president is elected by popular vote for a maximum of two four-year terms. He is the Chief of State, commander of the armed forces and chairman of the Supreme Defense Council. The president nominates the prime minister, who in turn appoints the government, which must be confirmed by a vote of confidence from Parliament.

Currently in Romania the President is Emil Constantinescu and the Prime Minister is Victor Ciorbea.

Romania’s Communist government was overthrown in 1989. During the overthrow approximately 1500 people were killed. Shortly after the National Salvation front (NSF), installed itself and proclaimed the restoration of democracy and freedom. They also outlawed the Communist Party.

It is hard to tell what will happen in Romania in the next five years. It will be better known after the next presidential election that will occur in November of 2000.

Government

The form of government is comparable to the United States in that it is a democracy. It has executive, legislative, and judicial branches that are very similar to ours. The President, Aleksander Kwasniewski, is the Chief of State. The head of the government is the Prime Minister, Jerzy Buzek. Presidential elections are held every five years with the next one scheduled for November of 2000. The President, pending approval by the Sejm, or Congress, appoints the Prime Minister.

The legislative branch of the Polish government is a bicameral made up of the Sejm (Congress) and the Senate. The Sejm is made up of 460 members and the Senate has 100 members. Legislative terms, for both houses, are four years.

The highest court in the judicial branch is the Supreme Court. The President appoints the judges for an indefinite period, upon recommendation. There are lower provincial courts, which are similar to our U.S. district courts. Poland also has a Constitutional Tribunal whose judges are chosen by the Sejm for nine- year terms.

The current government of Poland would be considered a centrist government with a fairly even mix in the legislature of both right and left wing politicians. Most sources indicate a strong commitment to democracy, and I foresee a stable future for this government.

The past 20 years have shown considerable changes in the Polish government. The government, prior to 1980, was a Communist Regime. However, increasing consumer prices, in 1980, led to large worker strikes in several of Poland’s port cities, effectively shutting down the Baltic coast. There were also large strikes in many of Poland’s important coal mines. This series of strikes was later termed the "Solidarity Movement." Out of this formed the Solidarity party, a leading political party ever since.

After the strikes were settled, the Polish economy continued to decline with the government taking the blame. The Soviet Union was so displeased with the government’s authority over the people that they built up a military force along the Polish boarder. The Polish government instituted martial law in 1981, which led to the arrest and imprisonment of Solidarity party members. The U.S. and several other Western countries then imposed economic sanctions against Poland and the Soviet Union. This contributed to the suspension of martial law in 1983, and by 1986, all political prisoners had been released.

The Polish government’s continuing inability to slow economic decline led to the recognition of the Solidarity party in the late 1980s. This recognition led to the "Roundtable Talks" and free elections. These free elections led to the first non-communist controlled Polish government in 40 years. The new government quickly transformed the economy to a free market system and began the period of economic recovery. Through the 1990s, the government has been stable and holding "free and fair" elections.

I do not foresee any shifts in the Polish government. The economic situation has been improving over the past ten years and I would expect that to continue as Poland tries to gain acceptance into the EU. All of the sources that I have seen show a strong commitment to democracy.

Government

The Czech political scene supports a broad spectrum of parties ranging from the reformed Communist Party on the far left to the nationalistic Republican Party on the extreme right. Czech voters returned a split verdict in the June 1998 parliamentary elections, giving the left of center Social Democrats (CSSD) a plurality but the right of center parties a majority. The results produced a CSSD minority government tolerated by the largest right of center party in parliament, former Prime Minister Klaus’ Civic Democrats (ODS). Prime Minister Milos Zeman is the head of government and has considerable powers, including the right to set the agenda for most foreign and domestic policy, mobilize the parliamentary majority, and choose governmental ministers.

Vaclav Havel, now President of the Czech Republic, is not affiliated with any party but remains one of the country’s most popular politicians. As formal head of state, he is granted specific powers such as the right to nominate Constitutional Court judges, dissolve parliament under certain conditions, and enact a veto on legislation.

The legislature has a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate. With the split of the former Czechoslovakia, the powers and responsibilities of the now federal parliament were transferred to the Czech National Council, which renamed itself the Chamber of Deputies. Chamber delegates are elected from seven districts and the capital, Prague, for 4 year terms, on the basis of proportional representation. The Czech Senate is patterned after the U.S. Senate and was first elected in 1996; its members serve for 6 year terms with one third being elected every 2 years.

The country’s highest court of appeals is the Supreme Court. The president appoints the Constitutional Court, which rules on constitutional issues, and its members serve 10 year terms.

There have been some major changes to Czech Republic's government over the last twenty years. It was formally Czechoslovakia until their break up January 1, 1993. They had been fighting communism until the break up of the Soviet Union in the early 90's. They established their current government write after the break up between them in Slovakia and have been struggling for the last ten years to keep the formal socialist party out of the government. Their government is struggling but is becoming more stable year after year as they adjust to their market economy.

Government

The Slovak political scene supports a wide spectrum of political parties ranging from the successors to the Communist Party to the left and the nationalistic Slovak National Party on the right. The movement toward a democratic Slovakia ruled the country for the first 5 years as an independent state, except for a 9 month period in 1994, during which a reformist government under Prime Minister Jozef ruled Slovakia, but Meciar returned to power in December of 1994.

In the run up to elections in October 1998, Meciar’s government was accused of thwarting democratic principles and imposing a biased election law. A record 84 percent of voters participated in the vote, giving the Dzurinda government a clear mandate for change to a reformist coalition led by economist Mikulas Dzurinda and made up of four diverse parties the Coalition, and the Party of Civic Understanding. Since the election, the new government has exposed widespread corruption and economic mismanagement by the previous government, which had seriously undermined efforts to maintain economic growth and integrate into Euro Atlantic institutions.

Under the original Slovak Constitution the president was elected by Parliament to a 5 year term. Since the Parliament was unable to agree on a successor to President Michal Kovac when his term ended March 2,1998, most presidential powers reverted to the prime minister. Soon after that Parliament passed a amendment for direct election of the president. Their current president is Kosice Mayor Rudolf Schuster. The president serves as commander in chief of the armed forces, appoints ministers, grants pardons, and has the right to dissolve Parliament under certain circumstances. The president also signs laws and has the right to return legislation to Parliament, but Parliament can override this veto with a simple majority vote.

The country’s highest court of appeals is the Supreme Court, elected by and responsible to the National Council. The 10 members of the Constitutional Court, who rule on constitutional issues, are appointed by the president from a choice of candidates nominated by Parliament.

As you can see Slovakia’s government is very unstable even more than most of its former communist countries. A lot of this is due to the struggle of getting the economy and the people use to a market democratic economy. Trade with Slovakia should be done with the write precautions. It looks like they have a lot of potential we just need to teach them how to tap into it.

Government

Norway is a constitutional monarchy. King Harald V inherited the throne in 1991 following the death of his father. The royal family has no real political power but are an important symbol and mean a great deal to the Norwegian people.

Similar to the United States, Norway is divided into 3 main legislative branches: the executive, legislative, and judicial.

The Prime Minister, Jens Stoltenberg, serves as the country’s leader and head of the executive body. A cabinet of 18 ministers, headed by the prime minister, carries out administrative duties. Stoltenberg was appointed by the King 17 March 2000 and represents the Labour party.

Legislative authority is vested in the parliament, called the Storting, which has 165 members from 19 counties elected every four years. The Storting elects one-quarter of members to an upper house, the Lagting; the remainder constitutes the lower house, the Odelsting.

There are currently nine active political parties in Norway. They are: Labor Party, Conservative Party, Center Party, Christian People’s Party, Socialist Left party, Norwegian Communist Party, Progress Party, Liberal Party, Red Electoral Alliance. Kjell Bondevik is a member of the Christian People’s Party.

The Norwegian political system features an active and extensive public sector, a sector that since the 1970s has claimed around 50 percent of the country’s GDP. The driving force behind the development of extensive public activities has been the political authorities’ ambition of developing a strong and universal welfare state. Primarily based on a social democratic foundation from the outset, this policy has won the support of all major Norwegian political parties since World War II.

State intervention in the economy remains significant. Norway has a centralized collective wage bargaining process and generous government-provided social welfare benefits. Norway’s inefficient agricultural sector survives largely through subsidies and protection from international competition. The government owns over 50 percent of domestic businesses, including majority stakes in the two largest oil and industry conglomerates and the two largest commercial banks.

While legislation governing investment was implemented in 1995, restrictions on foreign ownership remain. Also, since 1995 Norway has been a net foreign creditor and has posted a budget surplus.

In 1972 and 1994, following heated debate, Norway chose not to become a member of the EU, although it routinely implements most EU directives as required by the EEA. Many Norwegian officials feel that the EU debate will soon resurface for two reasons: the first being the belief that the euro will lead to increasingly tighter economic policy cooperation and the second deals with the acceptance of eastern European countries. Norway has long described the EU as a organization for the rich. If eastern European countries are admitted, this theory will in part be undermined, thus swaying the opinions of many Norwegians.

The development of a Norwegian welfare state is very much a "leftist" ideology. The concept of municipal self-government is deeply ingrained throughout Norway. It is through local administration of welfare services that the important aspects of the welfare state’s equality goals have been met. This is evident in the sharp growth seen in municipal expenditures—from 8 percent in 1945 to over 20 today.

The Local Government Act of 1847 was the formal legislation for the welfare state. In 1993, the act underwent extensive legislation. However, a majority in the Storting may undermine the basic principle of local government at any time. Although still strong throughout the country, the idea of self-government has been weakening over the past 20 years.

The changes I foresee taking place in the Norwegian government within the next 5 years include a slow movement toward a "centrist" government. This includes gradual increases in privatization of business. Steps have already been taken to deregulate the non-bank service sector. The telecommunications sector was opened to competition in 1998, and I feel other sectors will follow.

In similar accord, progress will be made in reducing subsidies in the manufacturing industry. I do not, however, anticipate reductions in subsidies for agriculture and food processing.

As increased acceptance of the EU’s euro continues, I think Norway will feel economic pressure to join. As a competitive, entrepreneurial spirit permeates Norwegian industry, a continued gradual weakening of the municipality government philosophy will ensue. Although staunch traditionalists may stand firm against membership, younger industrialists may find economic growth dependent on adapting to a EU economy.

Norway has already foreseen the need to develop a plan to sustain Norway’s oil and petroleum reserves. The country has identified this industry to be the foundation of their economic growth and national wealth and will continue extensive research and development to ensure they are not irresponsibly depleted.

Government

The popular government in Sweden rest upon ancient tradition. The Swedish parliament (Riksdag) stems from the ting (tribal courts) and the election of kings in the Viking age. It became a permanent institution in the 15th century. Sweden's government is a limited constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system.

Executive authority is vested in the cabinet, which consists of a Prime Minister and 19 ministers who run the government departments. The present Social Democratic government, led by Prime Minister Goran Persson, came to power in 1994 after losing power briefly in 1991. King Carl XVI Gustaf (Bernadotte) ascended to the throne on September 15, 1973. His authority is formal, symbolic, and representational.

The unicameral Riksdag has 349 members, popularly elected every 4 years and is in session generally from September through mid-June. Sweden is divided into 22 counties and 288 municipalities. A governor appointed by the central government heads each county (Ian). Each county has a popularly elected council with the power of taxation. In addition, each council has particular responsibility for education, public transportation, health, and medical care.

Swedish law, drawing on Germanic, Roman, and Anglo-American law, is neither as codified as in France and other countries influenced by the Napoleonic Code, nor as dependent on judicial practice and precedents as in the United States.

Legislative and judicial institutions include, in addition to the Riksdag, the Supreme Court, 6 superior courts, and 108 lower courts.

Sweden is a country that leans heavily to the left.  There is a major governmental influence.

The major change that has occurred in Sweden is its admittance to the European Union 1 January, 1995.  While some argued that it went against Sweden’s historic policy of neutrality (Sweden had not joined the EU during the Cold War because it was incompatible with neutrality), others viewed the move as a natural extension of the economic cooperation that had been going on since 1972.  Sweden addressed this controversy by reserving the right not to participate in any future EU defense alliance.   Sweden also reserved the right to make the final decision on whether to join the third stage of the EMU—a common currency and central bank.

In a nationwide referendum in November 1994, 83 percent of eligible voters voted, 50 percent of whom voted to join.  However, in a 1997 poll, many Swedes indicated dissatisfaction with Sweden’s membership.  In 1997, the government decided to remain outside the EMU, at least until 2002.

Over the next five years, there should not be any major changes taking place in Sweden’s government, other than possible entrance into the EMU.  The government will continue to gain popular support for EU cooperation, EU enlargement, and strengthening the EU in areas such as economic growth, job promotion, and environmental issues.

Government

The government of Lithuania is described as a parliamentary republic. It consists of three branches, the executive, the legislative, and judicial. The executive branch consists of the chief of state President Valdus Adamkus, Premier Gediminas Vagnorius, and a Council of Ministers. The President is elected on 5-year terms with the next elections scheduled for 2003. The Premier is appointed by the President and approved by the Seimas. The legislative branch of the government consists of the parliament, or Seimas. It is a unicameral body made up of 141 members, 70 of which are elected by proportional representation and 71 or which are elected by popular vote. Each member serves a 4-year term with the next elections scheduled for October of 2000. The judicial branch consists of a Supreme Court, appointed by the President and approved by the Seimas, and a Court of Appeals, appointed by the Seimas. The Lithuanian legal system is based on civil law, however there is no judicial review of legislative acts.

Relative to the United States, Lithuania’s government would be considered leftist. The government is still very involved in some areas of the economy, such as electricity. The upcoming privatization of the electric power plants is an indicator that the government is moving more towards the center as talks to join the EU begin.

The government should also be considered fairly stable. Lithuania earned its independence from the Soviet Union on 6 September 1991 and ratified its current Constitution and form of government on 25 October 1992. As with any young democracy that is moving away from communist rule, there have been growing pains. High inflation was common in the early 1990’s. But as privatization has occurred, the economic outlook has improved, thus improving the government’s position.

In the next five years, I see the Lithuanian government continuing to shift toward the center. As the EU talks continue, industry will continue to be privatized, and more foreign investment will occur. This shift is best exemplified by the election of President Adamkus in 1998. Adamkus, an active member in the United States Republican Party when he was working here, has appointed ministers who share this belief in private industry, once again the best example being the privatization of the electrical power industry.

Government

Finland is a parliamentary democracy headed by a president as chief of state. On 6 February 2000, Finland elected Tarja Halonen as the successor of former president Martti Ahtisaari. Not only is Hallonen the first women to ever be elected president, she is the former foreign minister and labor lawyer. Presidents are elected to 6 year terms. The parliament is elected every 4 years by popular vote. There are 200 members in the parliament that is much like the unicameral in Nebraska. There is also a Supreme Court that is made up of judges appointed by the executive branch.

Finland joined the European Union in 1995, and in 1998 parliament voted to join the European Monetary union. Historically, Finland has attempted to follow a policy of non-alliance and military neutrality, a policy that is being increasingly redefined with the breakup of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the European Union.

Government

According to the country’s 1982 constitution, China is a socialist dictatorship of the working class led by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Unlike governments in Western democracies, such as the United States, China is a tightly organized movement that controls and leads society at all levels. The party sets policy and controls its execution through government officials who are party members. This in effect, makes the government an organ of the party.

Within the state's governmental structure, the highest organ in theory is the unicameral legislature, called the National People’s Congress (NPC). However, in practice, the most powerful state organ is the cabinet. This is called the State council, which is headed by a premier. Therein lies the majority of the executive powers. Reason being, the NPC is sometimes only in session for approximately a month.

The head of state in China is the president, who is elected to a five-year term by the National People’s Congress. However, the presidency is largely a ceremonial office. Due to the CCP exercising so much control, the person with the greatest real power over China’s government is the party’s general secretary. The second most powerful person is the premier, who is nominated by the president and elected by the NPC. Often, the CCP general secretary is also the state president. This combines the prestige of the head of state and the policy-making powers of the head of the ruling party. Chinese president Jiang Zemin, is the current CCP general secretary.

The judicial branches highest court is the Supreme People’s Court, which supervises the administration of justice by the various lower levels of people’s courts. However, it does not have the power of constitutional supervision. That power is vested in the Standing Committee of the NPC. The legal system has the following four components: the Supreme People’s Court, the Public Security Administration, the police, and the public prosecutor.

Over the past few decades, China’s government has shifted from a controlled planned economy to the previously mentioned socialist market economy. Government agencies have been reinforced and have been given more operation independence. Under this new concept, the government and economy has become more predictable and open. Private businesses have developed and become more independent. This has all resulted in a much higher degree of autonomy in the private business sector. Also, China traditionally lacked Western-style ideas of judicial independence and due process of law. Since reforms in 1978 however, China has constructed the beginnings of a modern legal and judicial system. The government has enacted hundreds of laws. Many deal with economic subjects, but others govern the administration of prisons and the activities of lawyers and judges. Currently, Chinese law permits police to impose up to three years of detention without trial. This could be the result of opposing the communist party.

The party’s economic priorities include increasing China’s economic strength, through a market economy that is closely guided by the government. Also, reforming inefficient state-run enterprises by giving them managerial autonomy and allowing many to become privately owned. In addition, China has become a major export power, making economic diplomacy an important part of its foreign policy. The main example of this is China seeking admittance into the World Trade Organization (WTO). This will maintain favorable tariff treatment by other markets, including the United States, its chief export market. For these reasons, we as analysts believe that the government will continue to loosen economic regulations, which will allow for more marketing opportunities within China.

Government

Taiwan has a multiparty democratic regime headed by a popularly elected president. There is an Executive Yuan, Legislative Yuan, Control Yuan, Examination, and a Judicial Yuan in which the President appoints the head of the Executive Yuan. The Executive Yuan then comprises the premier and the cabinet members who are responsible for policy and administration. President Lee Teng-hui is the spokesman for the Taiwan government. President Lee Teng-hui succeeded to the presidency following the death of President CHIANG Ching-kuo in 13 January 1988 and then was elected by popular vote for the first-ever direct elections for president on 23 March 1996. This was the first ever elected and not appointed president. President Lee Teng-hui received 54% of the votes.

From 1949 until 1991, the authorities on Taiwan claimed to be the sole legitimate government of all China, including the mainland. In 1991, Taiwan abandoned their claim of governing Mainland China.

In 1994, the National Assembly took action to allow for the popular election of the President. The Legislative Yuan in 1994, passed legislation to allow for the direct election of the governor of Taiwan Province and the mayors of Taipei and Kaohsiung.

Taiwan has applied to get into the UN for the past six years, but all of their applications have been turned down. Over 75% of the Taiwan people want democracy, which is why they keep applying to the UN. President Lee Teng-hui wants a "state to state" relationship with mainland China. Previously the President wanted a peaceful reunification with China, but he withdrew from that idea in 1999 July. Taiwan also wants to get into the WTO, but is not expected to get in until China is let in.

Taiwan is a multiparty democracy with a perceived stable, yet still developing democratic institution. Minor civil disturbances or other serious threats to the political system are unlikely. The first Taiwanese elections and the stability of the country indicate that Taiwan politics are relative secure.

In March of 2000, Taiwan plans to hold only its second ever-direct presidential election. The race looks to be close between the current vice president and the former mayor of Taipei.

Government

Prior to 1 July 1997, Hong Kong was a British dependent territory. A British-appointed governor, representing the British crown, headed the Hong Kong government. The governor presided over a fourteen member Executive Council that advised him on important matters. The Legislative Council where elected members and enacted laws and oversaw the budget. After 1 July 1997, China resumed control over Hong Kong ending more than 150 years of British control.

Under Chinese rule, Hong Kong is classified as a special Administrative Region of China, with its own constitution. Its government is similar to the United States. A chief executive presides over the Executive Council, whose members assist them in policy-making decisions. The current chief executive, appointed by China, is Tung Chee-hwa. The term limit for the chief executive is appointed to a maximum of two five-year terms. An elected Legislative Council of 60 members serves as Hong Kong’s lawmaking body. The judiciary branch of the government is independent, and laws are based on English common law and the rules of equity. Judges are appointed by the chief executive.

China’s control over Hong Kong will not influence its independence. Hong Kong will continue its political, economic, and judicial sovereignty from the Republic of China. With a unique independence from China, Hong Kong will remain to be an open and free society.

Government

Japan is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government, much like that of the United Kingdom. There are three major branches of government, executive, legislative, and judicial. The Chief of State is Emperor Akihito Tsugu-no-miya. His functions are largely ceremonial, though his power does include convening the legislature, and receiving foreign ambassadors. The emperor, however, is not part of the executive branch, that role is left up to the prime minister.

Japan’s government changed dramatically as a result of World War II, but since then has stayed somewhat consistent. After the war the United States took Japan under its wing and introduced political, economic, and social reforms. The Japanese government has valued its close relations with the United States, and has remained dependent on the U.S. to come to their assistance in a time of need, or war. Japan has also created 47 administrative divisions, which are similar to the states in the U.S., mainly to mimic the government structure in the United States.

The government of Japan seems to be solid as a rock even though the economy is in a bit of a down turn. The crime rate is remarkable low, and the people have extreme confidence in their political leaders. Japan may not have much of a defense, but they always have the United States there looking out for them.

Government

The Government of South Korea is considered a republic and is structured like the presidential system of the United States. The powers of the Government are separated among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The Legislative branch is run by a unicameral, which has 299 members elected by popular vote. The executive branch is run by the president, prime minister, and the president’s cabinet. The prime minister is appointed by the president and approved by the unicameral. The judicial branch has Supreme Court justices who are appointed by the president and are subjected to the consent of the unicameral. The president of South Korea is elected for a five-year term by popular vote. The president’s responsibilities include being the chief of state, head of executive branch, and commander of the armed forces. The president of South Korea is KIM Dae-jung and the prime minister is Kim ching-p’il.

In the last 20 years South Korea has faced many changes in government. In 1980 antigovernment demonstrations turned into riots and lead to the imprisonment of South Korea’s current president Kim Dae-Jung. In 1987 riots again broke out because of opposition to presidential election policies. After weeks of protesting the government agreed to select a president by popular vote. The first direct popular vote was held on December 16, 1987 and Roh Tae Woo was elected. After 1987 there was significant political liberalization, which included greater freedom of the press, greater freedom of expression, and greater civil rights. In 1996 Roh Tae Woo was convicted of bribery charges. In 1997 an accumulation of corrupt business practices and bad loans led to a series of bankruptcies and economic failure in South Korea. This political uncertainly helped the current president to get elected in 1997. Since the election of KIM Dae-jung the stability of South Korea has improved. Since the economic crisis of 1998 South Korea’s economy as well as the people confidence has risen steadily.

Government

The Republic of India is a federal republic, governed under a constitution and incorporating various features of the constitutional systems of United Kingdom, the United States, and other democracies. The power of the government is separated into three branches: executive, parliament, and a judiciary headed by a Supreme Court.

India’s constitution went into effect in 1950, providing civil liberties protected by a set of fundamental rights. These include not only rights to free speech, assembly, association, and the exercise of religion—echoing the United States Bill of Rights—but also rights such as that of citizens to conserve their culture and language and to establish schools to aid this endeavor.

The head of state of India is the president. The role of president, modeled on the British constitutional monarch, is largely nominal and ceremonial. Most powers assigned to the president are exercised under direction of the cabinet. The president’s major political responsibility is to select the prime minister, although that choice is circumscribed by a constantly evolving set of conventions. The president is elected for a five-year term by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of the national and state legislatures. The president is eligible for successive terms.

India’s current President is Kocheril Raman Narayanan who has been in office since 25 July 1997. Their Vice President is Krishan Kant, since 21 August 1997. The current Prime Minister of India is Atal Bihari Vajpayee who has held the position since 19 March 1998, who is by far the most powerful figure in the government.

The constitution vests national legislative power in a parliament of two houses: the Lok Sabha (House of the People), the lower house, and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States), the upper house. The Lok Sabha consists of 545 members directly elected by universal adult suffrage, except for two members who are appointed by the president to represent the Anglo-Indian community. The number of seats allocated to each state and union territory is proportional to its population. The term of the Lok Sabha is limited to five years, but the president may dissolve the house upon the advice of the prime minister, or upon defeat of major legislation proposed by the government.

Members of the Rajya Sabha are elected by the members of the state legislative assemblies, except for 12 presidential appointees who have special knowledge or practical experience in literature, the arts, science, or social services. The elected members are chosen by a system of proportional representation for a six-year term; one-third of the Rajya Sabha is chosen every two years. A two-thirds majority is required for some constitutional amendments to pass; some amendments also require ratification by one-half of the states.

Political parties play an important role in India’s democracy. For many years a centrist national party known as the Congress Party was the most powerful political party in India. Established in 1885 as the Indian National Congress, it led India in the struggle for independence. India’s greatest change in government came in 1989 when the Congress lost elections. Although, this was mildly forseen since new parties were being formed in order to conquer the Congress. Help from the Congress itself was provided because of a significant decline in popular support after allegations of corruption. Other Indian political parties include two major socialist parties, the Janata which was formed in 1977 to defeat the Congress Party, and the Janata Dal (People’s Party), a secular, socialist party appealing to lower caste and Muslim voters. The far left of the political spectrum is occupied by the Communist Party of India (Marxist), which draws support from urban and rural laborers. The newest national party is the Bahujan Samaj (Society’s Majority) Party, draws on the support of the scheduled caste population.

India has a stable government and it appears that nothing drastic is going to change. Even though there are communist parties they probably won’t be taking over the government any time soon since at the present time these radical parties are losing their popularity with Indian citizens.

Government

Thailand's government is a constitutional monarchy. Like the United States, Thailand has three branches of government, which include Executive, Legislative, and Judicial.

Within the Executive branch, the chief of state is King Phumiphon Adunyadet (since 9 June 1946), and the Prime Minister has been Chuan Likphai since 15 November 1997. The cabinet consists of the Council of Ministers. There are no elections. The monarch is hereditary and the Prime Minister is designated from the members of the House of Representatives. After the national election of the House of Representatives, the leader of the party that can organize a majority coalition usually becomes Prime Minister. The next election for the House of Representatives will be 17 November 2000.

The Legislative branch is a bicameral National Assembly or Rathasapha, which consists of the Senate or Wuthisapha. The Senate is a 253-member appointed body. As of March 2000, the Senate will only consist of 200 members, each serving six-year terms. The House of Representatives or Sapha Phuthaen Ratsadon has 391 members, but after the November election it will be a 500-member body. The members of the House of Representatives are elected by popular vote and serve four-year terms.

The Judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court, which is the highest court of appeals. The judges are appointed by the King.

Eleven political parties exist in Thailand with the New Aspiration Party holding the most seats (125) in the House of Representatives. NAP is followed closely by the Democratic Party, which holds 123 seats.

Thailand has 76 provinces, which includes Bangkok, Thailand's capital. The governor of Bangkok is popularly elected, but the governors of the remaining provinces are career civil servants appointed by the ministry of interior.

Thailand's government is stable, and I think it will remain that way for some time or at least while the current monarch is still alive. The current monarch has ruled for 52 years and is well respected by the people. The monarch has used his popular respect and moral authority in times of political crisis.

Government

Vietnam’s government is classified as a communist state and its official name is the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Similar to the U.S., Vietnam’s government can be broken into three divisions: executive, legislative, and judicial. A unicameral, popularly elected National Assembly is the supreme organ of the government. It elects the president, Tran Duc Luong, who is head of state, and the vice president, Nguyen Thi Binh. The cabinet consists of the prime minister, Phan Van Khai, who is nominated by the president and approved by the National Assembly, and deputy prime ministers and the heads of government ministries and various state organizations, who are named by the prime minister and confirmed by the Assembly. The cabinet coordinates and directs the ministries and various state organizations of the central government and supervises the administrative committees at the local government level.

The judicial system consists of the courts and the People's Organs of Control. The National Assembly supervises the work of the Supreme People's Court, which is the highest court of appeal and the court of first instance for special cases (such as treason). The People's Courts function at all levels of government except the village, where the village administrative committee functions as a primary court. The People's Organs of Control act as watchdogs for the state: they monitor the performance of government agencies, maintain vast powers of surveillance, and act as prosecutors before the People's Courts. The Supreme People's Organ of Control is responsible only to the Standing Committee of the National Assembly.

The first constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was adopted in 1980; it was superseded by a second constitution in 1992. In addition to reforming Vietnam's government and political structure, the 1992 constitution also outlined major shifts in foreign policy and economic doctrine. In particular, it stressed the development of all economic sectors, including private enterprise, and it granted foreign investors the right to legal ownership of their capital and assets while guaranteeing that their property could not be nationalized by the state and administrative committees at the local government level. Both the 1980 and 1992 constitutions institutionalized the Vietnamese Communist Party as the sole source of leadership for the state and society. The 1992 document, however, delegated much more authority to the president and the cabinet; they were given the task of running the government, while the party became responsible for overall policy decisions.

Vietnam’s continually poor economic conditions always pose as a threat for revolt against the government. However, Vietnam seems to be making changes to improve the standard of living for its citizens. There have been recent efforts to cut the unemployment rate with the implementation of government programs that are projected to create over 300,000 jobs. Additionally, Vietnam is in the process of drafting the regulations for the creation of a policy bank which would provide low-interest loans to poor Vietnamese. Also, it is reported that they are using short-term trade credits to bridge the gap in their trade deficit, which is a risky strategy that may result in a foreign exchange crunch. Assuming these systems don’t fail, there is little reason to believe that there will be a major shift in Vietnam’s government.

Government

The government of Singapore is classified as a Republic within a Commonwealth. The legal system is based on English Common Law. The Executive branch is made up of the chief of state, President S.R. Nathan, the Prime Minister GOH Chok Tong and Deputy Prime Minister LEE Hsien Loong. The president appoints the cabinet and elections are held every six years. The next election will be held in the year 2005.

The legislative branch is a unicameral Parliament which consists of 83 seats, and members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms. The next election will be held in the year 2002. The judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court, the chief justice appointed by the President with the advice of the prime minister. Other judges are appointed by the President with the advice of the chief justice.

Singapore’s government has been stable now for many years. With no reason to predict change in the future, Singapore’s government could be called "centrist". The government and therefore, the economy should remain established for several years to come, or at least the near future.

Government

Malaysia's government is classified as a constitutional monarchy, nominally headed by Paramount Ruler, His Majesty Tuanku Salehuddin Abdul Aziz Shah, customarily referred to as the King. Kings are elected for 5-year terms from among the nine sultans of the peninsular Malaysian states. Executive power is vested in the cabinet led by the Prime Minister; currently Dr. Mahathir bin Mohamad. The cabinet is chosen from among members of both houses of parliament and is responsible to that body.

The bicameral parliament consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. All 69 Senate members sit for 6-year terms; 26 are elected by the 13 state assemblies, and 43 are appointed by the King. Representatives of the House are elected from single-member districts. The 192 members of the House of Representatives are elected to maximum terms of 5 years. Legislative power is divided between federal and state legislatures.

Malaysia's predominant political party, the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), has held power since Malaya's independence in 1957. In 1973, a coalition of fourteen communally based parties with the UMNO formed the Barisan Nasional. In 1995, the Barisan Nasional won 162 out of the 192 parliamentary seats. In addition, Barisan Nasional has also held power continuously in most state governments.

Recently there has been controversy in the Malaysian government. In September 1998, Prime Minister Mahathir accused Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Abraham of immoral and corrupt conduct. Anwar said he had political differences with Mahatir, and a series of demonstrations advocating political reforms followed. In September, the government detained Anwar and many of his supporters without trial under the Internal Security Act (ISA). Anwar and his associates were later released from ISA detention though Anwar remained imprisoned pending trial on four counts of corrupt practices. In April 1999, he was convicted on all four counts and sentenced to six years in jail. He is currently on trial for sodomy. Anwar's ouster and imprisonment will affect Malaysia's general elections, which are due by June 2000.

Our desk does not see any major shifts in the categorization of Malaysia's government in the next five years. However, the heated political atmosphere between Mahatir and Anwar will probably shake things up in government. Malaysia is in a time of great prosperity economically and as long as there is economic prosperity we believe the government will remain stable.

Government

The current structure of the Indonesian government is classified as a Republic. Heads of state and legislative representatives are chosen by election for 5 year terms. Indonesia’s Executive branch is headed by President Abdurrahman Wahid.

Indonesia has two legislative bodies, but they have distinct duties and do not function as two houses of a unified legislature. The parliament (DPR) meets frequently throughout the year to discuss and pass legislation submitted by the administration. This new parliament, changed from the structure of Soeharto’s era, consists of 500 members - 38 of the individuals being appointed to represent the armed forces. The larger body is the MPR, which in the past met every five years with the specific duty of electing the president and vice president and approving the Broad Guidelines of State Policy (GBHN). The present MPR consists of 700 members which includes the entire parliament plus an additional 135 members elected by each of the 27 provinces (5 per province) and 65 appointed by the president to represent various social organizations.

Originally owned and ruled by the Netherlands, Indonesia declared its independence on 7 August 1945. Through a long string of weak government ruling and after a coup attempt that took the lives of all top-ranking military officials except himself, Soeharto came to power in 1966 and was elected president. For his 32 years in power, Soeharto continuously tightened the government’s control of the people. He resigned in March of 1998 after the economic crisis set in and his popularity had diminished. Soeharto’s successor, B.J. Habibie, moved the next presidential elections up from 2003 to 1999. In August of 1999, Wahid was elected president of Indonesia.

Since Habibie and Wahid have taken power, there has been a strong effort to reduce the amount of control that the government has over the people, therefore classifying it in a "developing liberal" status. As for where Indonesia’s government structure will be in the next five years, that lies very heavily on how President Wahid’s first year in power goes. So far, he has removed Gereral Wiranto from his cabinet in relation to a trial over human rights violations in East Timor, a newly independent country that once was a province of Indonesia.

Through this very tense stand-off though, Wahid has maintained strong control over the country’s developing government. Based on that, our desk believes that Indonesia’s government should develop rather steadily with only a few complications unless Gen. Wiranto demands reinstatement into the Cabinet before the United Nations’ human rights trial is over.

Government

The Commonwealth of Australia is governed by a democratic, federal-state system. It recognizes the British monarch as sovereign, although the Australia Act of 1986 abolished any remaining legal authority that Britain had over Australia. The Head of State is the Governor General, currently Sir William Deane. He is appointed by the British Monarch.

The legislative branch of the government is made up of a Senate and House of Representatives. The Prime Minister is the party leader that wins a majority of seats in the House. He serves as the head of the government and appoints a cabinet. John Howard is currently the Prime Minister. The judicial branch is separate from the rest of the government, and much like the U.S. judicial system. There is a High Court of Australia that has jurisdiction over the federal and state courts.

There are three significant political parties in Australia: the Liberal Party (LP), the National Party (NP), and the Australian Labor Party (ALP). The ALP, which chiefly represented trade unions and liberal groups, was previously the majority party. A coalition of the LP and NP came to power in 1996. This party is more conservative and represents rural interests and business groups. Since the party came into power, the government’s deficit has been reduced, and privatization of business has increased. Australia’s government is moving closer to a centrist position from its traditional slightly leftist orientation.

Australia has strong foreign relations with other governments, especially the United States. There is no evidence that this trend will not continue. Bilateral trade between the two countries totaled $19 billion in 1998. The two countries work closely together in the World Trade Organization and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. Australia was a founding nation of the United Nations. They also have strong relations with ASEAN, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Malaysia. Papua New Guinea is the largest beneficiary of Australian aid.

Government

New Zealand is a fully independent commonwealth of Great Britain, being ruled by a parliamentary government. There is no written constitution for the government. The chief of state is Queen Elizabeth II. She is represented by a Governor General, currently Sir Michael Hardie Boys.

The Prime Minister, Helen Clark, is the head of government, along with the cabinet. The legislative branch of government is the House of Representatives, or parliament. The judicial branch is made up of District Courts, the High Court, and the Court of Appeals. Local governments in New Zealand are relatively powerless. They have only the powers that are expressly granted to them by parliament.

The two parties that lead New Zealand are the conservative National Party and the leftist Labour Party. The National Party has been in control for most of the time since 1949. Recently, the Labour Party was in control from 1984-1990. During this time, the government reformed the market to lower the country’s external debt. The National Party has continued economic reform since its re-election. Like Australia, New Zealand’s government is moving from the left towards a more central position.

In the last 15 years, the government has eliminated subsidies, liberalized trade regulations, relaxed controls on interest rates, prices, and wages, and reduced tax rates. Inflation has decreased, and unemployment has lowered, although this figure has risen slightly for the last few years. Foreign policy is fairly strong, with most of New Zealand’s relationships being devoted to developed democratic nations. Involvement in the UN and the WTO is high. Relations with the United States are strong, with the U.S. being New Zealand’s second largest supplier and customer.

Government

The Republic of the Philippines is governed by a representative democracy that is very similar to the U.S. system of government. The head of government is the President, Joseph Estrada, followed by a Vice President, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. The legislative branch is composed of a Senate, which is made up of members elected at large, and a House of Representative with members elected from districts. The judicial branch is independent of the executive and legislative branches.

Until 1981, the Philippines was governed by President Ferdinand Marcos, who declared martial law. He suppressed civil liberties and democracy. He was forced to flee the country after an uprising of civilians and the military. In 1985, a peace agreement ended military insurgency. Since then, the country has been returned to a democratic state with no threats of uprising or communism. Estrada, the current President, cites fighting poverty and corruption as his highest priorities. The Philippines has traditionally been somewhat right-wing, but recently has been moving away from this towards a central position that more closely resembles the U.S. political atmosphere.

The Philippines has played a major role in ASEAN recently. The country is also involved in APEC and the UN. Relations with the Middle East are strong. Due to shared history and governmental ideals, the relationship between the U.S. and the Philippines is strong. There are important economic ties; trade between the two countries was over $18 billion in 1998.

Government

The Independent State of Papua New Guinea is a constitutional monarchy with parliamentary democracy. The chief of state is the British monarch, who is represented by a Governor General, currently Sir Silas Atopare. The head of government is the Prime Minister, Sir Mekere Morauta. The legislative branch of government is a unicameral parliament, which elects the prime minister. The judicial branch of government is independent of the rest of the government. As in the U.S, the highest level is the Supreme Court.

In December of 1973, Papua New Guinea became self-governing. On September 16, 1975, the country was granted its independence. The government has been inconsistent since then. Motions of no confidence can be brought up in parliament to oust the prime minister, and this occurs on a frequent basis. Other factors contributing to the instability of the government are high number of political parties, shifting loyalty, and coalition governments. Papua New Guinea’s government is generally characterized by leftist policy.

Papua New Guinea’s closest foreign policy ties are with Australia. They have diplomatic relationships with a total of 56 countries. Strategies on foreign relations and economic matters are mostly moderate. The U.S. provides assistance in areas of rural development and education. The Peace Corps plays a major role in this. The U.S. also takes part in the International Coral Reef Initiative, which has a purpose of protecting coral reefs in tropical nations, including Papua New Guinea.

Government

The government of Belarus is very similar to the U.S. It is a republic that gained its independence from the former Soviet Union in 1991. Its constitution was adopted a few years later in 1994, and revised by in 1996 to give the president, expanded powers. The democracy consists of three branches such as the U.S. with the spokesperson being the president-elect, Aleksander Lukashenko.

The executive branch consists of the president (head of state), prime minister (head of government), council of ministers (cabinet). As of now the council of ministers is dominated by a coalition of former members of the Communist and Agrarian Parties. In the 1994 constitution it was written that the president would be elected every five year. The first president was elected in 1994 and due to come up for reelection in 1999, but the 1996 referendum extended his term to 2001. The president appoints the Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Ministers.

The Legislative branch is now a unicameral after being a bicameral to begin with. The parliament consists of the Council of the Republic or Soviet Respubliki. Of the 64 seats; the president appoints the deputies of local councils indirectly elect eight and 56 for four-year terms. In 1994 there was a Chamber of Representatives, which the members came from the former Supreme Soviet but Lukashenko disbanded this chamber in the 1996 referendum.

The final branch is the Judicial branch. It consists of the Supreme Court same as the U.S. Half of the judges are appointed by the president and the other half appointed by the Chamber of Representatives. The judicial seats are vacated if someone is reappointed. There is no life-time appointment like in the U.S.

During the past 20 years Belarus was part of the dictator ship of the Soviet Union. In 1991 they declared their independence from the Soviet Union and set up a democracy. The constitution later came into effect in 1994. Next on the agenda is the possible political structure being joined in some form with that of Russia in the coming years. This is a merge that I see very possible in the next couple of years. Talks are currently going on as of today to get the ball rolling.

Since gaining independence from the Soviet Union, Belarus has been very open to foreign industry coming in especially if it has to do with computers. The only shift that I see possible is the merging with Russia. Even if that happens, Russia has a government very similar to Belarus. If anything it will promote economic growth and less restriction on freedom within the country, which is pretty limited as of now.

Government

The government of Georgia is comparable to that of the United States in the sense that they both share executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Eduard Shevardnadze, who is considered the chief of state and also head of government, heads the nation of Georgia up. Elected to a five-year term in 1995, the Georgian president is serving his last term this year. Elections in the country are set for 9 April 2000, but a postponement into the fall would greatly benefit the states leader for re-election. This is stated, because the president feels that the tense society could become better as they move into the fall. The president has the right to amend the constitution, but doesn’t feel that it is necessary. Since the fall of communism the countries of the FSU have fallen into a centrist government. I feel the government of Gerogia is leaning to the right a little bit. After the collapse of the Soviet Union I think that the governments of the CIS fell to far right. Saying that they gave to much ownership to the population of the countries, and not allowing the government much control. As a result of this, the economy of the countries collapsed because all of the money was in the hands of the population, and hardly any was left for the government. Since then the government has made adjustments and has shifted to the left.

The nation of Georgia was nonce under the communist control of the Soviet Union. In 1991 this nation, among others, broke free from communism and gained their independence.

Due to the economic chaos that is occurring in this country at the present time, it is speculated that Georgia does’ t have a sufficient currency to support it in the long run. As a result of the bad economy the state of Georgia is talking about becoming an neutral state. This neutrality principle, under analyzation, would be able to provide the country with security in the future. As of now though, the government among others, does not believe that it is in good enough shape to make the claim of neutrality. Although it is something that may happen with in the next five years, but in order to do so Georgia will have to improve their economy, so that it can qualify for this claim.

Government

Constitutional framework

The highest legislative unit of the Ukrainian government is the unicameral Supreme Council of Ukraine (formerly the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian S.S.R.), the members of which are elected to terms of four years. Whereas in the past these members were elected to represent various institutions and the general population from a single slate of candidates put forward by the Communist Party of Ukraine, in March 1990 the first multi-candidate, multiparty elections were held. During the Soviet period the legislature met only twice a year for a few days to approve budgetary and other proposals passed by its Presidium and the Council of Ministers; the Supreme Council has now assumed an active role in debating proposed laws and in shaping the policies of the Ukrainian government. The Presidium of the Supreme Council, which is elected by the council from among its members, consists of a chairman, two vice-chairmen, a secretary, and 15 members; it acts for the council between sessions. Until recently, the Presidium exercised both executive and legislative powers, but, after the election of the president of Ukraine (Dec. 1, 1991) by the general population, the executive and legislative powers were separated.

The highest executive office is that of the president, elected by direct popular vote for a five-year term. The president has the power to sign passed legislation to take immediate effect and is the commander in chief of the armed forces. The president appoints a Cabinet of Ministers, subject to approval by the Supreme Council. The Cabinet, headed by the prime minister, coordinates the day-to-day administration of the government and may introduce legislation to the Supreme Council.

Judiciary

The highest court in the judicial system is the Supreme Court of Ukraine, consisting of five judges elected for five-year terms by the Supreme Council. The court's function is to supervise judicial activities; it does not rule on constitutional questions (this is a function of the Presidium).

Political parties

Until October 1990 the only legal political party was the Communist Party of Ukraine (CPU), which was a branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). Major legislation approved by the Ukrainian Supreme Soviet originated in, or was approved by, the CPU. Indigenous opposition to the Communist Party crystallized in an organization called the People's Front of Ukraine for Reconstruction, or Rukh, in 1989. Consisting of an array of religious, nationalist, and cultural groups, Rukh succeeded in electing one-quarter of the deputies to the Supreme Council in March 1990.

With the removal of Article 6 from the Ukrainian constitution in October 1990 (which had protected the CPU from competition), nascent political parties were officially recognized. A wide array of political parties has emerged. On the far right, neo-fascist and extreme nationalist parties have gained strength and are represented in the Supreme Council. Rukh is the most prominent of a large group of moderate nationalist and centrist parties. An alliance of leftist groups, led by the Ukrainian Communist Party (legalized in 1993 after being banned in 1991), remains the most powerful bloc in the Supreme Council.

Government

Within the last decade the Russian government and economy has changed dramatically from one of a strict communist state to one which is struggling to adapt to a more open democratic government and free market economy. Today, many of the citizens of Russia are questioning whether they are in fact in a more prosperous condition than they were prior to the collapse of the Soviet Union. The free enterprise economy is being influenced by only a few wealthy tycoons who are seeing the true benefits of a free trade economy, while the majority is left wondering whether capitalism is just a synonym for poverty, oppression, and misery. Perhaps Russia's biggest mistake was trying to evolve Russia from a totally communist state to a democratic society virtually overnight, of which they had no prior background to reference. There is still opportunity for the new Russia to succeed, but it will require patience, especially after the recent demise of Russia's financial sector.

Following the resignation of Mikhail Gorbechev and the dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 26, 1991, Russia became a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States. This is comprised by 14 other members as well as those who were once former unified members of the Soviet Union. The Russian government would be best described now as one of a federated representative democracy in which Moscow is the capital. The first president of the quasi-independent Russia was Boris Yeltsin, who was elected in June of 1991. In late 1993, he organized an overthrow of the parliament and a newly drafted constitution was adopted on December 12, 1993.

Russia is still coping with trying to decipher the exact distribution of central, federal, and local powers as a federation. By constitution, the acting president substantially wields considerably more power than the legislative branch, or the bicameral Federal Assembly, which is composed of the Federation Council (a 178-member upper house with equal representation for all 89 republics and regions) and the State Duma (a 450-member lower house elected through proportional representation on a party basis and through single-member constituencies). The new constitution also provides provisions for welfare protection, access to social security, pensions, free health care, and affordable housing.

The transitional period that led to the demise of the Soviet Union was not overnight, but rather was the resulting effect of a decade prior to the collapse of the Soviet Union. Under Gorbechev's restructuring (perestroika), openness (glasnost), and democratization (demokratizatsiya) reform policies, fundamental changes took place in the political system and government structures of the U.S.S.R. that altered both the nature of the Soviet federal state and the status and powers of the individual republics. For the first time, voters were presented with a choice of candidates, including non-Communists, to represent them in their legislative capacity. Thereafter, Russia declared its laws took precedence over Soviet laws, Yeltsin became the first democratically elected president, in June of 1991, and the transition culminated in August of 1991 when a coup took place led by hard-liners who were opposed to Gorbechev's reform programs. This led to the collapse of most Soviet government organizations, the dissolution of the Communist party entirely, and the declaration of sovereignty by each Soviet republic.

Currently, Russia is undergoing another transition. Russian citizens, tired of the false promises that have never came through within the last four years under the leadership of Yeltsin, forced his resignation on December 31, 1999. He was replaced by a relatively unknown former KGB agent know as Vladmir Putin, who will remain the interim president until presidential elections, which will be held on March 26, 2000. Putin is expected to retain his current position. Putin promises positive change for the Russian people and a return to Russia's former status under the Soviet Union as a world superpower. Whether this happens remains to be seen, as Russia is still reeling from the financial crisis that swept through the country in August 1998 and caused massive inflation and devaluation of the ruble. However, energy prices, a chief income provider for Russia, are on the rebound, and this could mean a return to the brief growth period that occurred in 1996, when inflation was tamed, the currency was stabilized, and the Russian financial markets were attracting international interests.

Government

The Bahamas is an independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations. It gained its independence from Great Britain in 1973. It is considered a representative democracy, with executive, legislative, and judiciary branches. It is a parliamentary democracy with regular elections. Centered in the capital of Nassau, a bicameral legislature, which consists of the House of Assembly and the Senate, enacts laws under the 1973 constitution. There is also a Supreme Court, which has some power, but the Privy Council of the United Kingdom serves as the highest appellate court. As a Commonwealth country, its political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom. The Bahamas recognizes the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, as its formal head of state, while an appointed Governor General, currently Sir Orville Turnquest, serves as the Queen's representative in the Bahamas. Hubert Alexander Ingraham, the leader of the majority party, serves as Prime Minister and head of government.

Following general elections in 1992, The Bahamas experienced a peaceful transfer of power from the center-left Progressive Liberal Party (PLP), which had governed the country for the preceding 25 years, to the centrist Free National Movement (FNM), which remains in control. The principal focus of the Ingraham Administration has been economic development and job creation. Many of his government's policies are aimed at improving the image of The Bahamas and making it an attractive place for foreigners to invest.

No changes are expected in the near future. The system currently in place is productive and the country is doing well. Unemployment rates are under the 10% mark, and GDP per capita numbers are high. The next vote is in March 2002, but no major changes are expected. The Bahamas is a politically stable country, and is expected it to remain that way.

Government

Costa Rica’s Government is very similar to the United States. It is classified as democratic republic. It has three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. The spokesperson for Costa Rica is the president. President Miguel Angel Rodriguez is also the Chief of State. Rodriguez was elected February 1998. He resides in the capital city of San Jose. The president and vice president are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms. The next election will be in February 2002. Costa Rica appears to be more of a centrist government. It isn’t leaning towards communism or fascism.

The Legislative branch is a unicameral Legislative Assembly containing 57 seats. These members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms. The Judicial branch mainly consists of the Supreme Court along with other secondary courts. The Legislative Assembly elects Supreme Court justices for eight-year terms. The Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court was put into use in 1989. This Chamber reviews the constitutionality of legislation and executive decrees and all habeas corpus warrants.

The Republic of Costa Rica’s government is a democratic republic. Costa Rica gained its independence from Spain 15 September 1821. Costa Rica created its most recent constitution 9 November 1949. September 15th is celebrated throughout the country as Independence Day as a national holiday.

It appears that there will not be any shifts in the government in the next twenty years. Costa Rica seems to be very stable in their governmental situation. Obviously there will be some changes in the positions because of the elections, but besides this, Costa Rica has a stable government at this point in time.
 
 

Government

Cuba is a totalitarian state controlled by President Fidel Castro, who is Chief of State, Head of Government, First Secretary of the Communist Party (PCC), and commander in chief of the armed forces. Castro exercises control over all aspects of Cuban life through the Communist Party and its affiliated mass organizations, the government bureaucracy, and the state security apparatus. The Ministry of Interior is the principal organ of state security and control. In addition to the routine law enforcement functions of regulating migration, controlling the Border Guard and the regular police forces, the Ministry's Department of State Security investigates and actively suppresses organized opposition and dissent.

Executive and administrative power is vested in the Council of State and the subordinate Council of Ministers, over which Fidel Castro presides, supported by six vice presidents. Legislative authority rests with the National Assembly of People's Power, which meets annually for about five days, and is state-controlled. When not in session, the Assembly is represented by the Council of State. Fidel Castro is president of the Council of State, and his brother, Raul Castro, is first vice president, which places him first in the line of succession. Raul Castro is also the Minister of the Revolutionary Armed Forces.

In 1992, the National Assembly amended the 1976 constitution, abolishing references to the former Soviet bloc, outlawing discrimination for religious beliefs, permitting foreign investment, giving Fidel Castro new emergency powers, and allowing direct elections to the National Assembly of candidates approved by "mass organizations" controlled by the Communist Party. This may all sound good, but citizens’ rights are still heavily restricted by the Communist government.

The stability of Cuba’s government is questionable. Although Castro has controlled Cuba since 1959, he is 73 years old and will not be around forever. If something happened to him, there is no telling what the result would be. Many Cubans are unhappy and frustrated with their government. They are mistreated, their rights are restricted, and they are not well represented. If Castro relinquished his power, Cuban citizens may seize the chance to take control of their country and their freedom. Also, Castro and his government are under intense pressure from other countries around the world, especially the United States. This may eventually crack them and force them to abide by other countries’ standards. However, it hasn’t seemed to have an effect so far, and several countries are trying to move on and re-establish trade relations with Cuba. There is potential for change in the future, but only time will tell.

Government

The type of government in Honduras is that of a Democratic constitutional republic. There are three branches involved. The first is the executive branch. This branch has the President, which is directly elected to a 4-year term. Next is the legislative branch, which has the unicameral National Congress, being elected for 4-year terms. The third branch is the judicial branch. This branch has the Supreme Court of Justice (appointed by Congress and confirmed by the president) with several lower courts. The president, Carlos Roberto Flores Facusse, is the spokesperson for the country. He is a member of the Liberal party, which is mostly a centrist party. The country seems to be at a mostly stable point with its last elections being the cleanest in Honduran history.

Upon taking office on January 27, 1998, Flores inaugurated programs of reform and modernization of the Honduran Government and economy, with emphasis on helping Honduras’ poorest citizens while maintaining the country’s fiscal health and improving international competitiveness. The overall government seems to be gaining positive steps, more so than ever before, in sustaining a more stable government. The President is Carlos Roberto Flores Facusse. The Minister of Foreign Relations is currently Roberto Flores Bermudez. Also, the Ambassador to the US is Hugo Noe Pino. Ambassador to the UN is Edmundo Orellana. Finally, Ambassador to the OAS is Dr. Laura Nunez Flores.

Many changes have come about in the government since 1981. A constituent assembly was popularly elected in April 1980 and general elections were held in November 1981. A new constitution was approved in 1982 and the Liberal Party government of President Roberto Suazo Cordoba assumed power. As the November 1985 election approached, the Liberal Party had difficulty settling on a candidate and interpreted election law as permitting multiple presidential candidates from one party. The Liberal Party claimed victory easily over the National Party. With strong endorsement and support from the Honduran military, the Suazo Administration had ushered in the first peaceful transfer of power between civilian presidents in more than 30 years. Four years later, Rafael Callejas won the presidential election, taking office in January 1990. Callejas concentrated on economic reform, reducing the deficit, and taking steps to deal with an overvalued exchange rate and major structural barriers to investment. Despite the Callejas Administration’s economic reforms, growing public dissatisfaction with the rising cost of living, and with seemingly widespread government corruption led voters to elect Liberal Party candidate Carlos Roberto Reina in 1993. President Reina called for a “Moral Revolution”. The Reina Administration substantially increased Central Bank net international reserves, reduced inflation to 12.8% a year, restored a healthy pace of economic growth, and, perhaps most important, held down spending to achieve a 1.1% non-financial public sector deficit in 1997.

The government is expected to keep making positive strides in stabilizing itself. Inflation will probably continue to drop within the next five years. The poor citizens should benefit from the Facusse Administration. The country should continue to get healthier and international competitiveness should increase.

Government

The government of Jamaica is very similar to that found in the United Kingdom. Compared to the US government, where a representative democracy is found, Jamaica has a parliamentary democracy established. The executive branch is headed by the Chief of State, who is Queen Elizabeth II, the monarch of the United Kingdom. The Chief of State appoints the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Sir Howard Felix Cooke is the Governor-General. The Governor-General is assisted by a six-member Privy Council, but his duties are largely ceremonial. The head of government in Jamaica is the Prime Minister Percival James Patterson. Prime Minister Patterson is assisted by the Deputy Prime Minister Seymour Mullings. A cabinet is appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister. The cabinet, led by the Prime Minister, holds the executive power and is accountable to British Parliament. There are no elections for the executive branch of the government. The monarch of the United Kingdom is hereditary, the Governor-General is appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, and the Prime Minister and deputy Prime Minister is appointed by the Governor-General.

The Legislative branch of the government consists of a bicameral Parliament. The senate is comprised of a 21-member body appointed by the governor general on the recommendations of the Prime Minister and the leader of the opposition party (ruling party obtains 13 seats, opposition holds 8 seats). The other portion of the branch is the House of Representatives, which is comprised by a 60-member body. The members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms. There are three political parties present in Jamaica. They are the People's National Party, Jamaica Labor Party, and National Democratic Movement.

The Judicial branch is based on English common law and practice. Final appeal is to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court (judges appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister), Court of Appeal, Resident Magistrates' Court, Revenue Court, Family Court and Traffic Court.

Since August 1962, when Jamaica became an independent country, the government has remained primarily constant. The Queen has been the head of state with the rest of the branches remaining consistent with the above description. The future of the country seems to remain quite constant in relation to its government. The only shift that could occur is if the National Democratic Movement gains enough strength to overtake the present government and obtains full democracy for the country.

Government

The government of Nicaragua is a Democratic constitutional republic. There are four branches involved. The first is the executive branch in which the President and vice-president are elected every four years. Next is the legislative branch in which the unicameral National Assembly is elected every four years. The third branch is the judicial branch. This includes the Supreme Court. The last branch is the electoral branch, including the Supreme Electoral Council, responsible for organizing and holding elections. The President, Arnoldo Aleman, is the spokesman for Nicaragua. Arnoldo Aleman is the leader of the center-right Liberal Alliance. The overall government is becoming more and more stable. It still has a long way to go, but it is making positive steps.

The middle and lower classes of Nicaragua have been given more rights and freedoms than ever before. The first transfer of power in recent Nicaraguan history from one democratically elected president to another took place on January 10, 1997, when the Aleman government was inaugurated. The President is Arnolo Aleman, Vice President is Enrique Bolanos, Foreign Affairs Minister is Emilio Alvarez Montalvan, Finance Minister is Esteban Duque Estrada, Economy Minister is Noel Sacasa, Central Bank Minister is Noel Ramirez, Government Minister is Jose Antonio Alvarado, Agriculture Minister is Mario De Franco, Defense Minister is Jaime Cuadra, Construction and Transportation Minister is Edgard Quintana, Health Minister is Carlos Quinonez, Education Minister is Humberto Belli, Attorney General is Julio Centeno, Labor Minister is Wilfredo Navarro, Ambassador to the United States is Francisco Aguirre, Ambassador to the United Nations is Enrique Paguaga, and Ambassador to the Organization of American of American States is Felipe Rodriguez.

In the early eighties, The Reagan Administration provided assistance to the Nicaraguan Resistance and in 1985 imposed an embargo on U.S.-Nicaraguan trade. In response to both domestic and international pressure, the Sandinista regime entered into negotiations with the Nicaraguan Resistance and agreed to nationwide elections in February 1990. In these elections, Nicaraguan voters elected as their president the candidate of the National Opposition Union, Violeta Barrios de Chamorro. During her seven years in office, the government achieved major progress toward consolidating democratic institutions, advancing national reconciliation, stabilizing the economy, and reducing human rights violations. In February 1995, Sandinista Popular Army Commander General Humberto Ortega was replaced, in accordance with a new Military Code enacted in 1994, by General Joaquin Cuadra, who has espoused a policy of greater professionalism in the renamed Army of Nicaragua. The October 20, 1996 presidential, legislative, and mayoral elections were also judged free and fair by international observers and by the ground-breaking national electoral observer group "Etica y Transparencia" (Ethics and Transparency) despite a number of irregularities, due largely to logisitical difficulties and a baroquely complicated electoral law.

The government will need to gain the knowledge necessary to adjust to an electoral country. This will probably be the point of interest for the next five years in Nicaragua. The guerilla armies having some control over what goes on in the country, so they may play a role in the country’s future. Steps are being taken at the present time to reduce the fighting going on between Nicaragua and Honduras and within the country. The fighting could diminish within the next five years allowing the government to strengthen and gain additional power and confidence.

Government

Panama’s Government is very similar to the United States. It is classified as a constitutional republic. It has three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. The spokesperson for Panama is the president. President Mireya Moscaso is also the Chief of State. Moscaso was elected 2 May 1999. He resides in the capital city of Panama City. The president and vice presidents are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms. The next election will be in May 2004. Panama appears to be more of a centrist government because it doesn’t seem to be leaning towards communism or fascism.

The Legislative branch is a unicameral Legislative Assembly with 72 seats. These seats are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms. The Judicial branch includes the Supreme Court, five superior courts, and three courts of appeal. The Legislative branch appoints Supreme Court judges for ten-year terms.

Panama became independent from Columbia on 3 November 1903. Panama’s Constitution was created on 11 October 1972. Major reforms were later suggested and added to it in April 1983.

Panamanians moved quickly to rebuild their civilian constitutional government. On 27 December 1989, Panama’s Electoral Tribunal invalidated the Norieiga regime’s annulment of the May 1989 election and confined the victors of opposition Candidates under the leadership of President Gillermo Endora and Vice Presidents Guillermo Ford and Ricardo Arias Caldera.

Panama’s government is in a good position to remain stable for the next twenty years. The only changes that might occur are the changes because of elections. There may be some more reforms added to the constitution as they were in 1983. These may help to reduce poverty and crime. Things look bright for Panama’s future. Also, with Panama’s government taking over the Panama Canal, it should give the country a great boost in their overal